With the emergence of Archaeoastronomy over the past few decades, the sciences have been presented with a unique opportunity to delve into the basis of ancient studies through the study of astronomical phenomenon. Beginning with the groundbreaking interpretations of Harvard astronomist Gerald Hawkins in reference to astronomical alignments at Stonehenge in England, the field has expanded greatly to encompass pre-historic cultures on a global basis. Once thought to be 'savages' incapable of actively engaging in the world of 'science' we are finding that Old World and New World cultures alike shared a vested interest in astronomy and the regularity of prediction to be gained from their knowledge of the night skies.
The derivative cultures being accessed through the remnants they have left behind possess powerful and unique identities and eschatologies, constructing their universes in drastically different ways than perhaps even their closest neighbors. While many of the structures which have been documented over the years as being used in some capacity for astronomical observation, and which often times share the same alignments and impart meaning on the same events such as solstice or equinox, those responsible for their construction may have had very different reasons for doing so, based on their own world views and cultural values.
Archaeoastronomy is a cross disciplinary approach which examines the mythology, religion and world views of prehistoric and ancient cultures through the means of their astronomical practices. In examining the observations of such peoples, it is possible to gain a certain insight into the ways in which they constructed their own universes and therefore provide a more holistic understanding of the means and motivations of the culture as a whole. The astronomy in archaeoastronomy must not be explored from the biased standpoint of what we would consider in the present western view to be 'science'. Rather, the astronomical inquiry of the ancients must be looked at as a mechanism of observation and prediction which closely tied them to their environments, depending upon various cultural, religious and mythological bases for validation in the process.
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The megalithic monuments of Europe have always been a point of strange fascination in the realm of human understanding, and questions have surfaced as to who could have built such monuments and why have been a point of intrigue and mystery for many. Countless theories and myths of origin have surfaced throughout time, some even going as far as to suggest that they are a product of extra-terrestrial intervention (von Daniken and company).
Thought to have been built in three phases dating from circa 3000 B.C. to 1400 B.C., Stonehenge is the most famous of the European Megalithic sites. Consisting of a series of circular constructions of earth mounds and large stones, the first theoretical inquiries into its use as an astronoical observatory surfaced in 1901 when Norman Lockyer visited, deriving a number of astronomical allignments from his observations, and went on to develop diffusionist theories about the peoples responsible for the construction, suggesting that they had links to Egyptian civilization. It wasn't untill 1960 nhowever, when Gerald Hawkins visited the site, that serious studies concerned themselves with Stonehenge.
When examined together the earthen and stone circles contribute to the theoretical frameworks of not only astronomical alignments, but to several perceived calendrical systems which are believed to have predicted such phenomenon as the summer and winter solstices as well as the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, and all important eclipses (both lunar and solar). The precision once thought to be involved in the series of hypothesized alignments has now been proven to be inaccurate, however this may serve as a testament to the fact that science is ultimately self correcting and archaeo-astronomy has made advances in methodology in only the short amount of time it has been around. One of the most fundamental problems with the surveying of the site lay in the fact that Hawkins and company were strictly astronomers with little to no archeological or anthropological background, and therefore failed to address the cultural implications of the site.
While it is known and widely accepted that a basis for astronomical observations likely played some role in the people who built Stonehenge, the evidence is scant as to who exactly these people were and what their world view encompassed. Without written records of intent, and the lack of significant artifactual evidence from which to reconstruct the cultural complexes responsible for building Stonehenge (it has been hypothesized that it was built in three phases by three cultures), much of the archeo-astronomy performed on the sight is argued by opponents to be merely speculative, and that the astronomical alignments found here have been merely coincidental. This is where major theoretical interpretations and methodologies have come into great conflict within the world of science.
It has been long recognized that the ancient Egyptians possessed a great knowledge of geometry, mathematics and astronomy , all being the basis for the Great Pyramid of Giza which for 5000 years has stood as a monument to the great cultures that once populated the Nile River Valley. One of the greatest achievements of the Egyptians is the creation of a calendrical system which relied heavily on lunar observations. By 3000 B.C., they had devised a solar calendar of 365 days, the starting point of which hinged on the helical rising of Sirius, which also happened to coincide with the time of the summer solstice and the annual flooding of the Nile (Cornell 1981). While this all may seem to be rather unimpressive it serves to solidify the intrinsic necessity for ancients to be in touch with natural surroundings, through tracking celestial phenomenon, the Ancient Egyptians were able to predict events of great significance in their desert environment.
The world view of the Egyptians must be considered as well when examining suggested alignments as El Karnac (oriented toward the sunrise of winter solstice) and others like it. Ancient Egyptian astronomy like the astronomy of so many other pre-historic peoples was subjugated to religious mythology and the connections that existed between the heavens (the sky) and the earth. A great number of monuments throughout the Nile valley have been identified as possible constructions intended to capture the sun on days imparting meaning to the religious calendar or certain associated rituals. Litle merit has been given to recent theories such as that of the 'orion mystery', however a great many alignments seem to exist in the architecture of the area. The most intriguing perhaps, is the Temple of Abu-Simtal built by Rameses II circa 1250 B.C.. Constructed by carving massive statues from the stone wall backdrop, the temple faces east in order to greet the morning sun. As the sun rises, the statues are illuminated, perhaps symbolic of a daily rebirth of these revered ancient leaders. More compelling though is the passage to the Temples inner sanctuary which is aligned so that on October 18, the sun filters into the sanctuary, illuminating a statue of Rameses himself. This October date corresponds to the beginning of the Egyptian civil year, and the jubilee celebration during the time that Rameses lived (Cornell 1981). In such cases then, it is obvious that the ceremonial or ritual aspects become intrinsically intertwined with the daily life and survival of the Ancient Egyptian people. While certain dates (such as October 18) may mean little to us in the Western World, and our ideas of 'science' or astronomy, a sophisticated knowledge of celestial bodies (in this case the sun) are indispensable to them in constructing the sacred world which so closely interacted with the civil world and seasonal changes.
While it seems that the astronomy of the Egyptians was confined to the realm of observation, it becomes much easier in such an instance to understand the mythology and religion which may have surrounded their facination with the celestial bodies, and the regularity the observation of such provided them with in planning ceremonial tributes,etc. related to the religious aspects of culture, as well as the practical functions astronomy may have served for them in predicting the anual flooding of the Nile.
Prior to the Maya rising to power circa 400 AD in Central America and Mexico, there is evidence that the Olmec people had already begun to use astronomical orientations to direct the layout of several ceremonial centers, with the Pyramids of the New World oriented to observing and predicting the motions of the Sun and Mon. As with the Egyptians, we can deduce that Mayan astronomical endeavors, heavily relied upon the ritual and ceremonial worlds of the culture, however, here we have a wealth of evidence to substantiate such claims. Left behind are codices, or systems of hieroglyphic recordings of the Maya, and which include celestial sightings and how these sightings and predictions are woven into the entire cultural complex. The Dresden Codex has perhaps proved the most fruitful in helping to recreate the ancient environment, and containing an elaborate calendar used to record the observations of Venus, which seems to be an object of utmost importance to them. Working with both a solar calendar and a ritual calendar, the ancient Maya imparted much meaning in the helical rising of Venus, which is made evident in the structure of several ceremonial centers throughout the area. Unlike the Megalithic and Egyptian complexes, scientific observation can be better deciphered here, because of the elaborate records left behind, and because of the fact that so many of the deductions the Maya made so closely resemble recent calculations of the same recorded cycles.
Like the Egyptians, the Maya had devised two calendars, one solar and one ritual which interacted and depended upon one another for the dictation of certain ritual events to be carried out. The sky for the Maya was a seeming personification of Gods and deities who played important roles in the daily lives of the population. Most significantly, the relationship between the Sun and Venus (talked about previously in the helical rising, conjunction, phases) was representative of Kutaikcan, the God of Venus , and "symbolizes the cyclic myth of departure and return or death and resurrection." (Aveni 1984). In addition other objects may have been tracked in order to predict certain 'natural' phenomenon in accordance to seasonal changes therefor placing major importance on the accurate predictions undertaken to better predict the earthly events thought to be under the control of the Gods.
A great many structures are indicative of the devotion to and dependence upon Venus, to the Maya, and can be found in the architecture ceremonial centers throughout the region. Caracol, at Chichen Itza sits atop a large earthen mound and is a structure obviously intended for observing Venus at its most extreme points on the horizon. Just as famous, is the Governor's Palace at Uxmal, constructed so that it would center on the helical rising of Venus at its southernmost point during the eight year cycle it follows. Such an alignment can be further substantiated by the fact that the Palace deviates from the remainder of the buildings at Uxmal by twenty degrees, indicating the care taken to insure the sight lines of the observation windows (Shawcross 1985). The careful planning inherent in the design and building of such structures is made evident in the precision of their alignments, however this precision was indispensable to the planning of ritual events and the prediction of natural processes that so dictated the lives of the Maya.
Research regarding North American Indian astronomical insight has just recently begun to gain headway in the studies of archeoastronomers, and while the same volume of evidence does not exist as with cultures such as the Maya, the depth of Native American astronomical use and understanding is beginning to emerge. Based on the climactic conditions of more northern latitudes, it is safe to assume that one of the major reasons various tribes tracked the stars was for the prediction of seasonal change, which would indicate to nomadic or semi nomadic peoples that it was time to relocate for the winter months. This idea can be tied to the alignments found by John Eddy in the remains of the Big Horn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming. At Big Horn, Eddy noticed that by standing at the hub of the wheel one is able to deduce "a coherent alignment scheme" where the points on the outer wheel correspond to the sunrise of summer solstice, as well as the rising of Rigel, Aldebran, and Sirius, all of which have helical risings at the time of year when the site was climactically suited for occupation. (Aveni 1984).
Makeshift structures and artwork in the southern United States argue for the ingenuity of the various architects responsible for constructing them, and as to the important part of astronomical phenomenon in constructing their own cosmos. Von Del Chamberlain notes that even structures dedicated to habitation may have served as observatories, and has found that the Pawnee earth lodges "highlight a number of celestial phenomena, ranging from the movement of the solar disk to that of constellations known to have been named"(Aveni 1984). Fajata Butte in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico boasts a chamber in which a spiral petroglyph may be found. The glyph is surrounded by stone slabs allowing only scant light to penetrate into the darkness, and as the sun makes its appearance, a slit of light climbs the wall arriving at the center of the petroglyph at noon at the time of equinox. A number of artistic depictions of celestial phenomenon can be found as well, left behind by various tribes, indicating that even if they were not predicting the movements of the stare, they were intently contemplating the evident motions of the celestial bodies which corresponded to their various mythologies.
While lack of written records stall progress somewhat, the strong mythological tradition that exists among the descendants of various North American Indian groups helps in deciphering the origins of myth that would lend explanation as to the importance of the sky in the life ways of native cultures. A certain number of scholars however have raised the question as to whether North American Indian astronomy can in fact be considered in the context of archeoastronomy and its study of prehistoric peoples, contending that these Indian populations may have been tainted by Christian schools of thought somewhere along the line. While this is a valid point, and deserves consideration, it is important to account for the mythological elements which factor into the overall schematic.
While it may seem that little of our idea (the western ideal) of science comes into play in the study of archaeo-astronomy, the methods employed and the methodologies used in interpreting the astronomy of pre-historic populations relies heavily on the early thought processes which occurred as precursors to later scientific deductions and reasoning.
The cross-disciplinary approach used in archaeo-astonomy has served to strengthen interpretational frameworks that simply could not have been recovered with the same quality and precision of data through astronomy alone. Aveni makes the point that "astronomy of the other…must pay detailed attention to astrology, ritual, religion, myth - the very elements that have been removed from our own practice of astronomy" (1986). While many theories have evolved out of an attempt at such a complete understanding, many have yet to be substantiated, but that does not mean that they are devoid of merit. The difficulty in obtaining proof positive evidence becomes a difficult task when dealing with cultures of antiquity, however through the mindful inspection of various cultures it is made obvious that the skies were a force to be reckoned with, the careful prediction of astronomical events a considerable role in the construction of the universe.
The emergence of archeo-astronomy as a discipline within the last three decades then, has aided with the reconstruction of ancient populations and perhaps provided astronomers with a somewhat better sense of the fascination with the sky seemingly inherent in the human race. In the Old World and New World alike peoples and cultures have intently focused their realities upon the skies and the ways in which celestial phenomenon behave and unfold, for the sky is the one frontier which in effect remains constant throughout time and space. Only within the context of a given culture is meaning to be revealed and revered lending itself to a broader sense of grasping the intricacy of the symbiotic relationship which exists between 'science' and faith, the sacred and the profane.